Kant: Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals

Philosophy asks big questions in careful steps. This page introduces one short book about ethics. It is general education. It is not advice for your own situation, and it is not therapy.

The book

Immanuel Kant (1724 to 1804) published the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals in 1785. It is a short work. Its aim is to find and defend the basic principle of morality, which Kant calls the categorical imperative.

What "categorical" means

Kant separates two kinds of "ought". One kind depends on a goal, such as "if you want to pass the exam, study." The other kind applies no matter what you happen to want. Kant says moral duties are of the second kind.

Three ways Kant states the idea

Kant gives several formulations of the same principle. Three are most often discussed.

1. Could everyone do this?

Ask whether the rule behind your action could work as a rule for everyone. If a rule only works because other people do not follow it, Kant treats that as a sign something is wrong with it.

2. People are never only tools

Treat people, including yourself, as having worth in themselves. Kant says to never treat someone merely as a means to your goals, while allowing that we all rely on each other in ordinary life.

3. Giving the law to yourself

Kant calls this autonomy. A moral rule is one a reasoning person could recognize as binding on themselves, not just something imposed from outside.

Questions people raise

Philosophers have argued about this book for more than two centuries. Some ask whether rules can cover every real situation. Some ask how to weigh duties that conflict. Some ask whether feelings and relationships get enough room. Reading it does not settle these questions, and you are free to disagree.

A thinking prompt (optional)

Is there a rule you live by that you would be comfortable with everyone following? You do not need to write anything down or share your answer.

Where to read more

The Groundwork is in the public domain in several English translations. Early Modern Texts offers a free modernized version at earlymoderntexts.com. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy has an article on Kant's moral philosophy at plato.stanford.edu. Cambridge University Press publishes a scholarly edition. Links are to the organizations' own sites.

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